Scholarly Interpretations and Disputes
The “Central Plains” Argument
Some scholars argue that when King Wu spoke of “Zhonguo,” he meant only the central river valleys around Henan Province—particularly the area around modern-day Luoyang where the capital of earlier Xia and Shang dynasties had been located. They contend that “Zhonguo” initially referred only to this small region, not the entire kingdom.
Supporting Evidence for This Interpretation:
- The bronze vessel “Li Gui” (利簋) contains related inscriptions discussing the Shang conquest
- Records in “Sima Qian’s Historical Records” indicate Zhou planners considered establishing their capital in the Luo River valley
- King Cheng of Zhou (King Wu’s successor) and the Duke of Zhou chose a location near ancient Xia ruins
- The site selected was near modern Luoyang, called “Luoyi” (洛邑)
Thus, some scholars argue that “Zhai Zi Zhonguo” (宅茲中國) refers simply to “establishing the capital in the China region”—meaning only the construction of a new capital in the central plains, not the naming of the entire kingdom.
The Historical Progression
Even accepting this more restrictive interpretation, we observe an important developmental pattern:
- Initial Usage (1038 BCE): “Zhonguo” referred to the central region
- Gradual Expansion: As Zhou power extended beyond the central plains, the term expanded to describe the broader kingdom
- Geographic Growth: The “Zhonguo region” grew with Zhou expansion
- National Terminology: Eventually “Zhonguo” became the standard name for the entire state, similar to how “Rome” began as a city but became the empire’s name
Zhonguo as State Name Through the Centuries
The Han Dynasty Records
The written records become even more explicit in the Han Dynasty:
In Sima Qian’s Historical Records (司馬遷《史記》):
- The term “Zhonguo” appears repeatedly
- Sometimes it refers to the central plains region
- Sometimes it explicitly refers to the Han state as a whole
- The term had evolved into standard state nomenclature
External Recognition:
The Northern Xiongnu ruler (Maodun Chanyu) referred to the Han Dynasty as “the great Zhonguo” (大漢/大中國), demonstrating that by this period, “Zhonguo” was internationally recognized as the proper name of the Chinese state.
The Linguistic Development: From Region to State
The Rome Parallel
This linguistic evolution mirrors how the name “Rome” developed:
- Original Meaning: Rome was literally a city on the Tiber River
- Expanded Usage: As the Roman Republic expanded, “Rome” came to mean the entire political state
- Modern Term: Today, “Rome” encompasses not just a city but historical empire and modern nation
- Same Process: The term did not change; its meaning expanded geographically and politically
Similarly with “Zhonguo”:
- Original Region: The central yellow river valleys
- Expanded to State: As political control expanded, so did the term’s referent
- Standard Usage: By the Han Dynasty, “Zhonguo” meant the entire state under central control
- Linguistic Continuity: The term itself did not alter; its scope enlarged
The Term “Chinese People” (中國人)
Evidence from Historical Texts
The term “Chinese people” (中國人) appears extensively throughout Chinese historical documentation:
From the Historical Records (《史記》) of the Han Dynasty through to:
- Suizhu (《隋書》)
- Tang Dynasty texts
- Song Dynasty writings
- Yuan Dynasty records
- Ming Dynasty documents
- Qing Dynasty materials
The phrase “Chinese people” (中國人) appears “too numerous to enumerate”—the term is commonplace across these centuries.
Crucially: None of this terminology correlates with the founding of the Republic of China in 1912. These terms predate the ROC by centuries.
Royal International Recognition
The Kangxi Emperor’s Latin Diplomacy
The most famous explicit evidence comes from the Kangxi Emperor, who personally established this terminology in international relations:
The Nie Buchu Treaty (《尼布楚條約》), 1689:
When the Kangxi Emperor, the Qing Dynasty ruler, negotiated the treaty with the Russian Empire, he employed Latin to refer to himself officially:
“Sinarum Imperatoris” – The Emperor of Sina, which is the Latin term for China and Chinese civilization.
The Crucial Point: He did not style himself as the “Emperor of the Great Qing” (大清皇帝), but rather chose the classical historical term for Chinese civilization’s ruler.
This demonstrates definitively that:
- By the 17th century, “China” (Sina in Latin) was the recognized international term for the state
- Qing rulers identified with the classical “Chinese” identity rather than seeing it as a Manchu property
- The terminology had centuries of established usage
- It was not a 1912 invention
Early Medical and Philosophical References
Beyond political usage, the term appears in medical texts, philosophical treatises, and general literature throughout Chinese history—always referring to Chinese civilization as a whole, not merely a specific dynasty.
Conclusion
The historical evidence is incontrovertible:
- “Zhonguo” (China) as a term dates to at least 1038 BCE—3,000+ years before the ROC
- “Zhonguo Ren” (Chinese people) appears throughout various dynasties’ historical records
- The terms expanded from regional to national significance as political control grew
- International recognition was well-established by the Qing Dynasty
- The ROC’s founding in 1912 had absolutely nothing to do with the creation of these terms
Those who claim these terms originated with the Republic of China in 1912 are simply historically uninformed.
“China” and “Chinese people” are ancient terms with deep historical roots, just as “Rome” and “Roman people” carry meanings that extend millennia beyond any single political period.
To understand the proper meaning of these terms requires looking beyond 1912 to the full span of documented Chinese civilization—which means accepting that these ideas reflect not modern political innovations but ancient historical continuities.